A Simple Introduction to Archaeology

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Archaeology has become a fascinating subject in recent decades. The history-loving people want to know all about archaeology. The past has always been a matter of great importance to them. But, many people think archaeology and history are boring subjects. This is mostly because their first introduction to archaeology has not been interesting enough.

Sometimes the definitions of these two subjects in books and lectures are boring or difficult to understand. People, especially students, cannot relate to the subjects.

In this article, I am going to give a simple and brief introduction to archaeology. After that, you will understand archaeology is not just collecting old stuff and digging old places. It is much more than that! First, see some definitions of archaeology with a little bit of background. After that, we will try to understand the importance of archaeology.

What is Archaeology?

Let us begin your introduction to archaeology with a brief background history of the field. The formal study of archaeology started in the mid-19th century. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology. However, in some parts of Europe, it belongs to a different field.

The word Archaeology is a combination of two Greek words, archaios which means old or ancient, and logia, which means learning or studying. Together these two words mean studying or learning about ancient objects.

Scientists have defined archaeology in many ways. You will find tons of definitions of archaeology on the internet. So, to make things easy, we have picked some interesting ones for you:

“The study of the buildings, graves, tools, and other objects that belonged to people who lived in the past, in order to learn about their culture and society”

Cambridge Dictionary

“Archaeology is the scientific study of peoples of the past… their culture and their relationship with their environment. The purpose of archaeology is to understand how humans in the past interacted with their environment, and to preserve this history for present and future learning.” ( Larry J. Zimmerman)

“[Archaeology] is the method of finding out about the past of the human race in its material aspects and the study of the products of this past.” (Kathleen Kenyon, 1956. Beginning in Archaeology. Phoenix House, London).

So, what do you find common in these definitions? All of them give a lot of emphasis on studying past human civilizations and their cultures. And how is that possible? Archaeologists say it is possible to understand ancient civilization and humans through the scientific study of places, objects or materials left behind by the people.

“Material remains” means anything we can touch. It can be buried remains, relics, objects and constructions (buildings, monuments or structures etc.). Archaeologists discover these things to investigate the past.

Types of Archaeology

The field of archaeology is huge. There are many types of archaeology studying different subjects of the past. From shipwrecks to the Ancient Pyramids of Egypt, archaeology covers a lot of things. Here are some well-known branches of archaeology briefly talked about for your knowledge.

Prehistoric Archaeology

The subject of prehistoric archaeology is prehistory. It studies the past before written records were available. As there is no written evidence, prehistoric archaeology has to take help from anthropology, biology, and geology. Archaeologists carefully examine ancient materials. Then, they come up with different theories based on their findings.

Historical Archaeology

Historical archaeology works with the materials of the past or present through the help of written and oral information. Archaeologists scientifically examine the findings and cross-check them with written information. The writing system is a fairly recent invention compared to the existence of humans in this world. So, we can say that historical archaeology studies recent historical events and the past.

Biblical Archaeology

This branch of archaeology deals with the biblical account of the Ancient Near East and the Holy Land (Palestine, Israel, and Canaan). Biblical archaeology was first introduced in the late 19th century. The archaeologists of this field follow the Hebrew Bible as their main source. Combined with the theories and practices of archaeology, biblical archaeology tries to understand the past culture of Palestine and Israel. This field is mostly concerned with the Iron age.

Classical Archaeology

This area of archaeology is fully dedicated to research on the Greek and Roman civilizations. Classical archaeology became a formal research program during the 19th century. Archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann had an obsession with Greek and Roman history. He contributed a lot to developing the field of classical archaeology. Many institutions still conduct excavations to discover more about Greek and Roman civilizations.

Underwater Archaeology

The study of shipwrecks, submerged archaeological sites, and materials is called underwater archaeology. In the past, underwater archaeology was not considered a field of archaeology. But, the idea changed when universities started to consider the field an important part of archaeological research. Now, it has its own branches like maritime archaeology and aviation archaeology.

Industrial Archaeology

This field of archaeology systematically studies the industrial past. Industrial archaeology focuses on the industrial past and things related to the industrial revolution. The archaeologists of this field focus on materials like buildings, technology, artifacts, sites, infrastructure, and documents related to the industrial era. The field of industrial archaeology was introduced during the 1950s in Great Britain.

A Specialized Fields

There are fields of archaeology focused on specific civilizations such as Egyptology, Mayanology, Assyriology, and so on. Egyptology studies the history of ancient Egypt, culture, language, literature, and archaeology. Similarly, Mayanology focuses on the Mayan civilization, and Assyriology focuses on the history of Assyria, its language, and its materials. Many archaeologists dedicate their lives to studying only one specific field. Thus, they are also known as Egyptologists, Mayanologists, Assyriologists, etc.

What is the importance of archaeology?

Now, after your introduction to archaeology, you are probably thinking, what is the importance of archaeology? What is the point of knowing about the past? Or how is it related to our present?
You might have heard people say that the past does not matter. But, the past actually matters for human civilization. Archaeology is important for modern civilization in many ways. It is a magical door to the past. Let us see how archaeology is important for us.


First, archaeology can change history. The evidence of archaeology can either support the written evidence of history or dismiss it. A simple analysis of ancient pottery, tools, or even jewelry can change history. Archaeology follows scientific methods to investigate the past. Thus, it can prove whether any historical records are true or fabricated. Since the research is based on scientific evidence, there is very little possibility of a mistake.


Second, archaeology studies the lost civilizations and their culture to understand the development of human society. Archaeologists examine archaeological evidence like relics, buildings, constructions, monuments, places, and the environment. This observation helps us to know how human civilizations gradually developed through the ages.


Thirdly, archaeology can tell us when the past civilizations started, how they thrived, and why they collapsed. This knowledge will teach us about the past mistakes of ancient society and why they could not prevail. Observations can also predict human action and what can be the consequence based on the past. So, we can avoid repeating the same mistakes as the previous civilizations.

Conclusion

Finally, I hope this simple introduction to archaeology has sparked at least a little bit of interest in you about archaeology. The past has always been an attractive subject for many people. Solving the past can mean a lot for the present which is not possible without archaeology.

Bibliography

  1. Archaeology. Wikipedia, 2020.
  2. Hirst, K. Kris. “Defining Archaeology: 40 Different Ways to Describe Archaeology.” ThoughtCo, Aug. 28, 2020, thoughtco.com/different-ways-to-describe-archaeology-169847.
  3. Jarus, Owen. “What Is Archaeology?” LiveScience, Purch, 28 Mar. 2014, www.livescience.com/44448-what-is-archaeology.html.
  4. Johnston, Grahame. “Types of Archaeology.” Archaeology Expert, 29 July 2020, www.archaeologyexpert.co.uk/typesofarchaeology.html.


This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

       

10 Fascinating Facts about the Enigmatic Sumerians”

সাইরাস সিলিন্ডার

The Sumerians are said to form one of the first civilizations in the history of humanity. The civilization was mapped in Ancient Mesopotamia which became Babylonia later. Now it’s considered to be in Southern Iraq and parts of Syria, between the rivers named Tigris and Euphrates. In between the 6th and 5th millennium BC (roughly six thousand years ago) during the Chalcothilic and early Bronze Ages, the Sumerians built up their own world.

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Ancient Buddhist Stupa Discovered in Munshigonj

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An ancient Buddhist Stupa has recently been discovered in Munshigonj. Archaeologists found this Stupa while excavating at Nateshwar, a village under Tangipara Upazila. This is not the first archaeological structure to be found in this area. Many archaeological and historical sites have been discovered since 2013.

Excavations have been conducted by Bangladeshi archaeologist teams from Jahangir University and Cumilla University. The Agrashar Vikrampur Foundation and Chinese archaeologists are providing support to fully excavate the region. The new Buddhist stupa is the result of the second phase excavation by the Agrashar Vikrampur Foundation in Nateshwar.

According to Sufi Mostafizur Rahman who is the Director of the Archaeological Excavation and Research program and Professor of Archeology Department of Jahangirnagar University, the Stupa was the centre of the Buddhist religion and the centre of religious practice. It is the largest Buddhist Stupa ever found in Bangladesh. It is believed to be consanguineous with the stupas of Sanchi, Bharhut and Amravati in India.

North-east side of the Buddhist stupa has been excavated which is 43.5 meters long and its height is 43 meters. Four stupa hall rooms, huge central room, several rooms, border walls, and entrance path can be identified of the Buddhist Stupa. More than 5000 square meters of area in Munshigonj has been excavated from 2013 to 2018. The pyramid-shaped Buddhist stupa has been excavated in the year 2018 to 2019.

In the past, The Daily Star reported that 16 stupas have been discovered in Nateshwar from 2013 to 2016. The stupas have exceptional designs and unique archaeological style. Each of them is square shaped and the walls are made of bricks. The brick walls are 16 meters in length and 3.5 meters in width.

A few years ago, an ancients Buddhist city was discovered in Munshigonj. Various structures, old roads and drains were found in that site. Professor Mustafizur Rahman told the Daily Star that they had sent samples in the US for carbon test and the tests proved that the site was more than 1,100 years old.

Munshigonj, known as Bikrampur in the past, has always been a place of rich cultural heritage. It was one of the capital cities of Bengal during the Vedic Period. Around 820, emperor Dharmapala constructed approximately 30 monasteries during his reign and the discovered monastery is one of them.

The city was also famous for being a centre of Buddhist teaching and religious practice. The place might be the birthplace of the famous Buddhist scholar Atish Dipankar. He also might have been in this area for teaching Buddhism. Thousands of teachers, monks, preachers and students came to Bikrampur from far places like Thailand, Nepal, China and Tibet. Thus, the sites are very important for archaeologists from both Bangladesh and China to understand the great scholar and his life.

The team of archaeologists has a plan for more excavations for the next five years. Moreover, there is a plan to build an archaeological park in Nateswar as many historical and archaeological sites. From these sites, the archaeologists also discovered many relics and pottery.

So, there are enough resources to make it an archaeological park with a museum where history lovers can learn about the ancient ‘Temple City’ of Bangladesh. The researchers also believe that the sites of Munshigonj will receive recognition from UNESCO World Heritage site.

References:

  1. 1000-yr old Buddhist city in Munshiganj. (2018, January 05). Retrieved from https://en.prothomalo.com/science-technology/news/168993/1000-yr-old-Buddhist-city-in-Munshiganj
  2. 16 Buddhist stupas found at Nateshwar. (2016, January 30). Retrieved May 12, 2019, from https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/16-buddhist-stupas-found-nateshwar-209926
  3. Archaeological Park to be set up in Nateshwar. (2019, February 20). Retrieved May 12, 2019, from https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/nation/2019/02/20/archaeological-park-to-be-set-up-in-nateshwar
  4. Bikrampur Vihara. (2019, March 11). Retrieved May 12, 2019, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bikrampur_Vihara
  5. Lizleafloor. (2018, June 08). 1,000-year-old Buddhist temple found in Bangladesh with links to venerated ancient scholar. Retrieved from https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/1000-year-old-buddhist-temple-found-bangladesh-ancient-020221
  6. Unb. (2018, January 06). Nateshwar can be world heritage site. Retrieved May 12, 2019, from https://www.thedailystar.net/city/nateshwar-can-be-world-heritage-site-1515700

The 15 Most Important Facts About Indus Valley Civilization (Part 2)

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8. Planning of the Cities

The Indus Valley Civilization is famous for its city planning. Major cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are the best examples of Indus Valley city planning. Both of the cities had multi-storeyed houses made of evenly sized bricks. The people of the civilization used gypsum and mud to set the bricks to build their houses. This technique made the houses durable. Each of the houses had direct access to the drainage system and there were wells to provide water. The roads were wide enough to let two carriages pass side by side. The roads of Mohenjo-Daro were about 30 feet wide.

The cities were fortified and divided into two parts. The main part of the city was the citadel and the second was the lower part of the city. Archaeologists believe that the high-class people used to live in the citadel and the lower class people lived in the lower parts of the city. However, in both parts of the city houses were built on high platforms. The buildings had connections to the drainage system. According to historians, there were 2000-3000 buildings and 700 wells in Mohenjo-Daro. 

9.The Great Bath and the Great Granary

Mohenjo-Daro is mostly famous for having a huge bathhouse known as ‘The Great Bath’. It was the largest public building in the city. This public bath had an area of 900 square feet. There was a deep well on the east side of the bath. The well provided the necessary water and there was also a drainage system to carry away the water.  The bath was made of watertight bricks and it was ornamented beautifully. Some historians have speculated that the bath might have been a huge baptismal pool. Later on, this might have influenced the Indian caste system and ritual of purity.

“The Great Bath” By bennylin0724 is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0

A little west of the Great bath there was a granary that covered an area of 1350 square meters. Different kinds of grains were collected from the villages and stored in the granary. Many buildings with the same structures were also seen in other cities of the Indus Valley. So, it seems the cities followed each other to plan the cities.      

10 Trade and Commerce of Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley people not only traded among themselves but also exchanged with the outsiders. Archaeologists found seals of Indus Valley in Mesopotamia. This proves that these seals were traded during business exchanges. Also, the bronze found in Indus Valley was not native to that region. So, they actually traded among different cities and foreign countries. A city is known as “Meluha” was mentioned in an ancient text of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists believe this Melhua is probably one of the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. They also found some glass items of 1700 BCE in Harappa. These glass items might be the first items made of glass in history. So, glass Items, cotton cloths, and different kinds of grains were traded inside and outside of the Indus Valley. Hence, merchants and traders of the Indus Valley travelled far to maintain their business.

Indus Valley Seals By Gary Todd.

People of different professions such as priests, farmers, fishermen, potters, blacksmiths, herdsmen, and hunters lived in the Indus Valley. The people had their measurement system. Cube-shaped weight stones were used to measure products and seals were attached to describe the item and its quantity. The seals probably contained the name of the traders. But then again, not much is known about the Indus Script. So, it is not clear what was the function of the seals.     

11. Language of the Indus Valley People

The language and writing system of the Indus Valley Civilization is still a mystery. The earliest form of Indus Valley script was possibly invented during the early Harappa period (c. 3500-2700 BCE). There were signs attested on Ravi and Kot Diji poetry excavated at Harappa. The Indus Valley script was fully developed during the urban period. During the 2500 BCE, the script was widely used.  However, after 1800 BCE, the writing system gradually disappeared.  About 4000 samples of inscriptions have been found from Mohenjo-Daro and other cities of the Indus Valley. Unfortunately, they are impossible to decipher. There are many different opinions about the source of the writing system. Some archaeologists believe it came from Sumerian scripts and some say Egyptians. There is also strong support claiming that it originated from the Proto-Elamite script.

12. Seals of Indus Valley

The greatest examples of the Indus Valley civilization are the thousands of seals and clay tablets. Most of these seals and tablets have small inscriptions carved on them. Archaeologists discovered various types of seals. They are rectangular or square seals having symbols and pictures. They contain images of sacred animals such as cow, bull, unicorn, and elephants. Moreover, images of deities are also engraved on the seals and tablets. A seal depicts a man standing between a wild bull and a tiger. Another seal shows a fisherman catching fish with a net. Thus, the seals and tablets helped to understand this civilization and its people.

13. Art, Culture and Religion of the Indus Valley People

Like the language, the religious belief of the Harappa civilization is also a mystery. Unlike Mesopotamia and Egypt, The Indus Valley had no enormous sculptures or monuments. This means the rulers or priests did not influence the people to build magnificent sculptures or monuments in the name of religion or state. Thus, there are no ruins of noteworthy temples or halls for religious rituals. However, archaeologists collected small and medium sculptures of men, women, and animals have from the sites.

The discoveries show the religious involvement of the Indus people. Several bronze statues and figures of a dancing woman are examples of the aesthetic thinking of the people. There is another statue of a woman that has a plant coming out of her belly. The Indus people probably worshiped a mother goddess. The seals and tablets also give us a hint of the religion and culture of civilization. Among the 1524 seals, there are 1150 seals of unicorns. Besides, the unicorns there are pictures of bison, elephant, bull, tiger, and hare. These animal symbols were representations of gods and goddesses. The people used these seals to protect themselves from any kind of harm.

Bronze “Dancing Girl,” Mohenjo-daro, c. 2500 BC By Gary Todd.

An exceptional seal from Mohenjo-Daro illustrates a human deity sitting with a rhinoceros. There is a water buffalo on one side, and an elephant and a tiger on the other side. Many historians and archaeologists think that the deity is the ancient form of Lord Shiva as Pashupati, ‘the lord of beasts’ or ‘the protector of cattle’. Another group of scholars criticized the claim. They argued that Hindu beliefs came thousands of years later in India. So, whether the Indus Valley people had only one religion or not is not clear. They might have different religious beliefs and cast systems. Hence, historians are still looking for answers.

14. Crafts of The Indus Civilization 

The time of the Indus Valley Civilization was truly the Bronze Age of India. Back in the days, Indus Valley people used modern techniques in metallurgy. They could produce elements like copper, bronze, tin, and lead. They could make different sculptures, potteries, jewelry, seals, buttons, human and animal figures. Undoubtedly, the Indus people were great craftsmen. Archaeologists found two miniature figures of male torsos from Harappa. These figures were carved from stone and they were anatomically perfect. The stone figures appear to be more lifelike than the Greek archaic period which started thousands of years later than the Indus Valley Civilization. The people of Indus Valley could even forge tools and weapons with stones, copper, and bronze. Thus, they made sharp knives, axes, chisels, razors, hooks, sickles, and saws.

15. The End of The Indus Valley Civilization

The decline of civilization is still a mystery. There are theories about the end of the Indus Valley Civilization. The Indus people did not morph into the current population of the area of Pakistan and India. The people now living in that area probably came from the Caucasus. From 1750 BCE the civilization declined and gradually faded away. Historians have a few theories about the end of this great civilization.

First, the Caucasus might have defeated them in a war and replaced them. Archaeologists did not have many weapons for defence and attack in sites of the Indus valley. There are also signs that they might have fought with each other. This is because the Indus people were peace-loving people and did not make many weapons for war. It turned out to be a wrong idea, and foreign invaders defeated them

Secondly, the weather might have changed because of pollution and cutting down the forest lands. Famine and lack of food became severe. And so, the people had to leave the area.

Thirdly, Natural disasters like the earthquake might have occurred. A massive earthquake changed the course of the river. As a result, many tributaries dried up and affected the water supply of the cities. The cities failed to sustain the vast population. Eventually, the people left for a better place and opportunity. 

The 15 Most Important Facts About Indus Valley Civilization (Part 1)

Reading Time: 6 minutes
Table Of Contents
  1. Ancient Indus Valley
  2. 1. Discovery of the Civilization
  3. 2. Chronology
  4. 3. Extent and Geography
  5. 4. Nearby Rivers
  6. 5. The Population of Indus Valley
  7. 6. The Early Settlers of Indus Valley
  8. 7. Agriculture and Animals of Indus Valley Civilization

Ancient Indus Valley

The Indus Valley Civilization is one of the most ancient civilizations in the world. There are many facts about The Indus Valley Civilization that can amaze us. The civilization was established during 3300 BCE. Archaeologists named the civilization after the Indus River region as they discovered the civilization on the banks of the river. The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization because Harappa was the first city to be discovered in that region. The archaeologists are still working to know the full extent of this civilization. So, a lot about this technologically advanced civilization is still unknown.

Harappan (Indus Valley) Bronze Chariot, Diamabad, c. 2000 BC By Gary Lee Todd, Ph.D. is marked with CC0 1.0

Here are the 15 most important facts about Indus Valley Civilization which you should know about:

1. Discovery of the Civilization

The discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization is fascinating. In 1856, the East Indian Railway Company planned to set up a rail line between Lahore and Multan. The British engineer John Brunton required some bricks to complete the rail line. The locals told him that he could collect the necessary materials from the ruins of an ancient city in Brahmanabad. The villagers themselves used the bricks from that city to build their houses. As advised, Brunton collected the required bricks from the ancient city. Then, he used them to build the rail line.

“Cut brick, Indus Valley Tradition, Harappan Phase, Chanhu Daro, Pakistan, c. 2500-1900 BC – Royal Ontario Museum – DSC09716.JPG” by Daderot is marked with CC0 1.0

After a few months, William Brunton, John’s brother who was also an engineer, found the ruins of another ancient city. He found the city a little north from the rail line construction site. According to William’s statement, the East Indian Railway Company built 150 kilometers of Karachi to Lahore railway with the materials of the ancient cities. After learning about the ruins, archaeologist Alexander Cunningham came to Harappa. Archaeological Survey of India was established in 1861. The survey appointed Cunningham as the first Director-General. Between 1872 and 1875 Cunningham revealed a seal from Indus Valley civilization for the first time. By 1912, more seals and stamps were collected from the ruins. These discoveries hinted the existence of an ancient civilization in that area.

In 1922, R. D. Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India, discovered the ancient city of Mohenjo-Daro in the Larkana district of Sindh. He found the remains of the city near the banks of Indus River. ASI Director John Marshall named the newly discovered civilization as Indus Valley Civilization. This discovery led to major excavations from 1922 to 1923. Since then, it has been clear that there was an ancient civilization that was about to change history. Since then, archaeologists have discovered over 1050 sites. However, only 96 sites have been excavated until now.

2. Chronology

All that we know about the Indus Valley Civilization comes from archaeological evidence. The historians may argue about the time of the rise and fall of this civilization. However, the timeline can be divided into roughly three periods. The Early Harappan Phase lasted from 3300 to 2600 BCE. The Mature Harappan Phase was from 2600 to 1900 BCE and finally, the Late Harappan Phase prevailed from 1900 to 1300 BCE.

3. Extent and Geography

The total size of the Indus Civilization is about 1,300,000 sq. km which makes it the largest ancient civilization ever discovered in history. This civilization flourished throughout North-Western India. The civilization was not limited to the Sindh province of Pakistan. It also extended to North and South Balochistan. This civilization was almost 20 times greater than the ancient Egyptian civilization and 12 times larger than the combined area of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. According to historians, the Indus Valley civilization spread from the Himalayas in the north to the Cambay Gulf, the Arabian Sea, and the west from the Iran-Pakistan border to the north of India. Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Chhangarro, Sutkajendor, Lothal, and Kalibangal were the major cities of Indus Valley Civilization. Moreover, the archaeologists measured some of the cities. Mohenjo-Daro was about 200 hector and Harappa was 150 hector.

4. Nearby Rivers

Indus Valley Civilization grew and thrived in the basins of two major rivers. One is the Indus River which is one of the longest rivers in Asia and another one is the Ghaggar-Hakra River. Many scholars believe that the Ghaggar-Hakra River is the dried up form of the Sarasvati River. The early settler of the Indus Valley started living near the rivers because the rivers kept the lands fertile for producing crops. They were the first farmers who lived together and built a village. Eventually, they established huge cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal, and so on. The people used the river water for numerous purposes like drinking, washing, and irrigating crop fields. The rivers were also a place for religious rituals like purification. 

“Indus river delta” by Michael Foley Photography is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
5. The Population of Indus Valley

Based on the extent of the Indus Valley Civilization, we can easily estimate that there was a vast population. Among the cities, about 85,000 people lived in Mohenjo-Daro and 65,000 people lived in Harappa. Evidently, at least 250,000 people lived in the cities. Besides, it is only the number of people living in the cities. The archaeologists estimate that the number of people in the villages was 15 times more than the people living in the cities. So, the population was at least 4-6 million.

6. The Early Settlers of Indus Valley

A civilization does not grow over a night or two. Similarly, Indus Civilization has a beginning. The Neolithic Revolution took place in South Asia around 9000-6000 BCE. The earliest evidence of a sedentary lifestyle in that region has been at Mehrgarh, in the slopes of the Brahui Hills. The settlement established during 7000 BCE. The people were early farmers. They grew wheat and reared different kinds of cattle. The people used wheels to create pottery around 4500 BCE, and they knew how to weave clothes. According to some evidence, people of Mehrgarh used burned bricks to build houses that archaeologists discovered later in Indus Valley Civilization.

The inhabitants of Mehrgarh left Balochistan when the climate changed in their favour. Eventually, they migrated to the fertile lands of the Indus river valley. The farming communities continued to spread further east to other parts of Balochistan and Lower Sind (Pakistan). They formed small villages and had strong communication with each other. Later, the villages extended to Upper Sindh, Punjab, and the western parts of India. The people of Mehrgarh possibly started the civilization of Indus Valley. Their technique of pottery making, use of burned bricks and rituals are present in Indus Valley culture.

7. Agriculture and Animals of Indus Valley Civilization

According to scientists, monsoon rain drove the rivers flowing through this area about 4,500 years ago. This means when it rained the rivers would overflow and caused a flood. Thus, it affected agriculture. The soil was rich and fertile. So, people could grow wheat, barley, chickpea, lentils, mustard, sesame, and corn. The people cultivated cotton during the summer. Agriculture in the Indus valley flourished not only for the favourable conditions but also for the use of advanced cultivation tools. Using ploughs during the Early Indus civilization was common. The discovery of a clay model of ploughs from Banawali and Jawaiwala supports the claim. It confirms that the people used carts dragged by animals.

Indus Valley, c. 2000 BC by Gary Lee Todd, Ph.D. is marked with CC0 1.0

The excavators have found many fossils from Indus Valley cities. There is evidence that both humped and hump-less cattle, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, asses, and fowls were common animals in The Indus Valley. Bones of dogs and cats were also found during the excavations. This are evidence that the Indus people domesticated many animals for their use. The seals of the Indus Valley also support the idea. Another seal shows a hunter hunting a water buffalo and some buffalo bones were also found. Elephants were likely used and hunted for ivory.  Cattle were used for cultivation and providing meat for the huge population. Horses were not depicted in any seals. But bones of wild asses were found in some places.   

Artifacts and Relics of Wari-Bateshwar

Wari Bateshwar Beads
Reading Time: 6 minutes

Table Of Contents
  1. Artifacts and Relics of Wari-Bateshwar
  2. Punched Marked Silver Coins
  3. Semi-precious Stone Beads
  4. Knobbed Ware
  5. Northern Black Polished Ware
  6. Rouletted Wares
  7. Black and Red Ware
  8. Lockets and Charmed Amulets
  9. Final Words
  10. References and Further Readings:

Artifacts and Relics of Wari-Bateshwar

Artifacts and relics of Wari-Bateshwar have changed the history of Bangladesh. Archaeologists collected many artifacts and relics from nearly 50 sites of Wari-Bateshwar. Moreover, Hanif Pathan and Habibullah Pathan contributed a lot to the museum. Among these artifacts, there are Neolithic Celt, semi-precious stone beads, sandwich glass beads, pendants, amulets, flakes, early historic blades, black and red wares, knobbed wares, rouletted wares, northern black polished wares, vessels, statues, and punch-marked silver coins. These discoveries are proof of civilized people living in these sites who knew modern techniques. The best way to understand the past is by studying the artifacts used in the past. So, here are some important artifacts and relics of Wari-Bateshwar we should know to understand the ancient city.

Punched Marked Silver Coins

A great number of silver coins were discovered from Wari-Bateshwar and nearby villages such as Kandua, Marjal, Jessore, Kundarpara, Jaimangal, Candipara, Patuli, Chula, Harisangan and Govasia. There are two types of punched silver coins found in these areas. One of them belonged to Janapada or the pre-Mauryan period. These coins circulated from 600 B.C. to 400 B.C. in some parts of the MahaJanapada (ca. 600-400 BC) kingdom of the Indian subcontinent. The other series of coins belonged to the Mauryan period (400 BC to 200 BC).

This means Wari-Bateshwar could have been a port city that traded with other parts of the Indian subcontinent. The coins have unique shapes and sizes. Most of these are oval, circular, rectangular or square. The people of Wari-Bateshwar marked the coins with various signs and symbols like cow, elephant, deer, owl, sun, tree, flower, wheel, trident, mountain, bird, six-armed devices and so on. Many of these silver coins also have symbols of lobsters, fish, tortoise and boat. These symbols show naval connections. This means Wari-Bateshwar was a city that had river-based trade and commerce. Archaeologists found similar coins in other parts of Bangladesh such as Rajshahi, Bogura and Mymensingh, but the amount is not as much as Wari-Bateshwar. 

Wari-Bateshwar Coin
Punched Marked Silver Coins By SM Iftekhar Alam.
Semi-precious Stone Beads

Archaeologists found a lot of semi-precious stone beads from Wari-Bateshwar. the local people call them ‘Solemani Pathor’ or ‘Stone beads of King Solomon’. These beads are made of carnelian, agate, jasper, quartz, amethyst, chalcedony, chert and crystal. The ancient people of Wari-Bateshwar used various techniques to cut, colour, and polish the beads. Local people still find these beads in their fields. According to archaeologists, Wari-Bateshwar was probably a manufacturing place of the beads.

Wari Bateshwar Beads
Wari Bateshwar Beads By James Lankton. University College London. Institute of Archaeology.

The beads have different shapes and sizes such as cylindrical, globular, pentagonal, triangular, hexagonal, oval, trapezoid, barrel, disc, spherical, crescent and diamond. The artisans used natural soda and crushed shoots of Kirar to polish the beads. After that, they baked or burned the beads. This technique was also common in Harappa (3rd-2nd millennium) in South Asia. The technique vanished for a long time but revived in the Ganga Valley between 600 BC and 200 AD. So, this means Wari-Bateshwar had a link with south and south-east Asia during the Early Historic Period and traded stone beads.     

Wari & Bateshwar- Beads
Semi-precious Stone Beads.
Knobbed Ware

Knobbed Wares common discoveries from the sites of Bangladesh, India and south-east Asia. Recently, archaeologists found knobbed ware in Wari-Bateshwar. In fact, Wari-Bateshwar is the only site of Bangladesh where knobbed wares have been found. The potters used a combination of tin-bronzed metals to make knobbed wares. One feature common of these vessels is 7-10 grooved spots around a knob in the middle. The exact use of knobbed wares is still unknown. But archaeologists guess that people used the vessels for religious and funeral purposes.

Northern Black Polished Ware

The northern black polished wares from Wari-Bateshware have exceptional quality. They have different colours and sizes. Most of them are black with a combination of red. The vessels were usually made from clay of the Ganga Plain. They were coated and polished with chemicals and then well-baked at a perfect temperature. The northern black wares are indicators of urbanization and artistic superiority. The elite people of society might have used these vessels just for their artistic value. Therefore, they are known as “Elite Ware”. Gold, bronze and magnetite were used to make these vessels. So, they were very expensive. Apart from Wari-Bateshware, Bangladeshi archaeologists have discovered northern black wares from Mangalkate, Chandaketugarh and Mahastangarh. The presence of a great number of the vessels establishes a correlation between the Maurya Empire and the practice of Buddhism in Wari-Bateshware.

Rouletted Wares

Rouletted wares originally came from India, Sri Lanka, other Asian countries and Rome. The rouletted wares are a type of colourful dish with unique patterns. The patterns consist of various shapes like tiny dots, strokes, wedges and triangles. We can see similar vessels in the archaeological site like Mahastangargh and Wari-Bateshwar of Bangladesh. Rouletted Ware, knobbed ware, northern black polished ware, different beads, amulets and pendants etc. were not native art of Bangladesh. The Buddhist monks might have brought these items with them when they travelled to Bangladesh from other parts of the Indian subcontinent.

Black and Red Ware

One of the significant findings in Wari-Bateshwar is black and redware. The interior of the vessel was painted black and the exterior was painted in black and red. Specialists think the potters baked the vessels in a special oven to give them unique colours. Black and red wares were mostly made in wheels, but sometimes they were handmade. The excavators found black and red wares of different shapes and sizes from the sites of Wari-Bateshwar. Among them, there were some flower vases, jars and bowls. According to the carbon dating, the pots developed during 1500 BC and continued to grow till the Chalcolithic culture fused into the historical period dating from the 3rd century BC.

Wari Bateshwar Artifacts
Wari Bateshwar Artifacts By James Lankton. University College London. Institute of Archaeology.
Lockets and Charmed Amulets

Till now, excavators found various kinds of lockets and charmed amulets from Wari-Bateshwar. The pendants have carvings of animals like lions, tigers, elephants, turtles, and swans. The Archealogits collected an amulet from the village Sonarutala of Wari. The amulet has exquisite artistic carvings in the middle. There is a goddess standing on a pot. She is holding a horn in her right hand and a halo in the left hand. She is wearing a funnel-shaped crown and huge earrings.

We can also see a woman and a man kneeling before the goddess who is praying to her. From the two holes at the two ends of the amulet, it seems, someone wore it as a charming amulet. Specialists think this rare pendant was used in 3rd-2nd BC. According to Dilip Kumar Chakrabarti, the goddess is Ghath Devi, and the amulet is one of the artistic crafts of the Maurya period.

Final Words

All these artifacts and relics of Wari-Bateshwar are proof that the ancient city was a center of trade and commerce of its time. Trading with different parts of the world was possible for the city because it was located near the Brahmaputra river. The river Brahmaputra had a close connection with the river Ganga and thus connected with different parts of the world. Its location and artifacts are quite similar to Gangaridae. Greek and Latin writers like Ptolemy, Virgil, Strabo, Diodorus, Kartius and Plutarch mentioned Gangaridae as a powerful kingdom several times.

Artifacts and Relics of Wari-Bateshwar By Umme Hanee licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

References and Further Readings:
  • Hamid, Kazi Kawsar. “Wari-Bateshwar: The Story Of An Ancient Fort City.” Daily Sun, 2018, www.daily-sun.com/post/332579/2018/08/30/WariBateshwar:-The-Story-Of-An-Ancient-Fort-City-.
  • Hossain, Emran. “Wari-Bateshwar One of Earliest Kingdoms.” The Daily Star, The Daily Star, 18 Mar.         2008, www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-28431.
  • Jahan, Shahnaj Husne. “Archaeology of Wari-Bateshwar.” Ancient Asia, vol. 2, 2010, p. 135.,        doi:10.5334/aa.10210.
  • Salim, MD Adnan Arif. Pratnocharchai Bangladesh. Prakriti-Porichoy,2015.
  • “Wari Bateshwar.” Tongi Industrial Area Comments, offroadbangladesh.com/places/wari- bateshwar/.
  • “Wari-Bateshwar.” Bengal British India Society – Banglapedia, 2015,en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Wari-Bateshwar.

Brief Introduction to Public Archaeology

Reading Time: 3 minutes

Table Of Contents
  1. Introduction
  2. What is Public Archaeology
  3. How Public Archaeology Functions
  4. Problems Related to Public Archaeology

Introduction

If you know about archaeology, you must have also heard about public archaeology too. General people are allowed to visit many Archaeological sites. In many countries, archaeological sites are used to attract many tourists all around the world. Unfortunately, sometimes the historical or archaeological sites or places are harmed by careless people.

In this article, I am going to talk briefly about what is public archaeology, how it functions and the problems related to public archaeology.

What is Public Archaeology

Public archaeology is the practice of providing archaeological information to the general public. It is also known as community archaeology in the United Kingdom. However, there is little difference between public archaeology and community archaeology.

Paharpur Buddhist Monastery by Masnad is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

Public archaeology aims to inform people about important archaeological discoveries. For this, general people get access to documents, pamphlets, books, journals, television programs, websites, and museum displays.

They can also get access to visiting archaeological sites. Thus, people can have clear ideas about the value of historical sites.

General people should be allowed to visit archaeological sites as they directly or indirectly pay for these discoveries.

How Public Archaeology Functions

Community or public archaeology is the archaeology by the people for the people. Community archaeology tries to understand the past through archaeological discoveries and their connection to modern people. In this case, the archaeologists and the local people help each other by sharing information. The local people can also provide their knowledge and add to the research. This practice allows the local community to take part in the primary stage of planning a project. People can help in many ways. They can help by forming research questions, conducting surveys, collecting data, and analyzing the data.

Public archaeology also aims at preserving and protecting archaeological remains. In this case, the government plays a great role. The government has systems like Heritage Management (HM) or Cultural Resource Management (CRM). It is formed to organize publicly funded projects, excavations, and researches. Museums, historical organizations, and professional archaeologists manage most of the public archaeological researches.

Ishtar-Gate. Pergamon Museum
Ishtar Gate. Pergamon Museum. By youngrobv is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.

The Lion is the symbol of Babylon and represents Ishtar, the goddess of fertility, love and war. Meant not only to symbolize Babylon but to instill fear in enemies.

The tiles were completely shattered, requiring around two years to clean, preserve and reassemble. The more vivid blue tiles surrounding the figure were recreated using the original glazing process to complete the lower blue-tiled section of the processional way in Berlin’s Pergamon Museum.

Problems Related to Public Archaeology

Before developing any public archaeological projects, archaeologists must consider some aspects. They must realize that the projects may fall victim to looting, vandalism, or damage. Unfortunately, some people and organizations have unethical intentions for archaeological sites and antiquities. So, giving access to valuable sites can cause a lot of problems. Some major problems related to public archaeology are:

  1. Looting or Robbing: There are risks in presenting archaeological findings to the public. This may attract robbers and looters who only care for money and not about cultural values. Corrupted people often loot archaeological sites for relics. They sell the relics on the black market. This is a great loss because the relics can provide crucial information about the past. Moreover, the robbers can carelessly harm the archaeological sites when they rob the places.
  2. Vandalism: Archaeological discoveries may not be pleasant for everyone in society. A particular group of people may feel offended by some discoveries which are threatening to their religion, culture, and beliefs. This may often drive them to vandalize the archaeological remains and sites. The archaeologists related to the research may also be threatened.
  3.  International Trades: International trade policy does not have strong laws against buying and selling looted archaeological artifacts. So, constantly informing the public about valuable archaeological discoveries may attract traders. The information and photos of archaeological relics help culprits to easily collect them. They can find a potential buyer even before the items are on the market. Thus, advertising archaeological discoveries can be a serious threat.
  4. Privacy Issues:  Sometimes declaring a site as public archaeology brings many problems to the locals. Suddenly, archaeologists come and dig up their lands. Besides, some discoveries can hamper the social and cultural life of a community living near the archaeological sites. A community’s spiritual beliefs about the landscape and its elements become threatened. Furthermore, some people may feel uncomfortable learning about the past rituals of their culture or religion (e.g. Animal slaughtering, cannibalism, etc.).